Book of the Dead

Book of the Dead A loose collection of magical spells and incantations that were normally written on papyrus, sometimes illustrated, and popular in Egypt from the New Kingdom (1550–1070 B.C.E.), the originals were on the walls of the  TOMBS in  SAQQARA. Middle Kingdom (2040–1640 B.C.E.) coffins also contained early versions.

The Weighing of the Heart ritual, shown in the Book of the Dead of Sesostris

The Book of the Dead was later called the  pert em hru (Chapters of the Coming Forth By Day). The Am Duat, or Am Tuat, was to instruct the deceased on how to over- come the dangers of the afterlife, by enabling them to assume the form of several mythical creatures, and to give them the passwords necessary for admittance to cer- tain stages of the Underworld. The spells also allowed the deceased to proclaim themselves as bearing the iden- tity of many gods. It is estimated that there were approx- imately 190 independent “chapters” or sections of the Book of the Dead, although there is no single extant papyrus containing all of them.

The mystical Spell 17, from the Papyrus of Ani. The vignette at the top illustrates, from left to right, the god Heh as a representation of the Sea; a gateway to the realm of Osiris; the Eye of Horus; the celestial cow Mehet-Weret; and a human head rising from a coffin, guarded by the four Sons of Horus.

The spells and passwords were placed in the tombs of the ancient Egyptians from about 1600 B.C.E. onward, although there are indications that they were included in the sections called “Chapters” as early as the Twelfth Dynasty (1900 B.C.E.). These spells and passwords were not part of a ritual but were fashioned for the deceased, to be recited in the afterlife. Egyptians believed in the efficacy of MAGIC and in the cultic powers of the gods. At the same time they had considerable faith in life after death, a belief that included specific paradises and activi- ties. The abundance of their material world was some- thing cherished by the Egyptians, who translated paradise into similar terms, with the same fertile fields, light, and sacred waters.

In the early periods the funerary texts were reserved to the reigning families and other aristocrats. In time, however, these texts became more and more available to the commoners. The Book of the Dead became a normal item of manufacturing, and the individual could decide the number of chapters to be included, the types of illus- trations, and the quality of the papyrus used. The indi- vidual was limited only by his or her financial resources.

During the New Kingdom (1550–1070  B.C.E.), the papyri were lengthy and involved collections of spells and passwords, some magnificently illustrated in color. The versions of the Theban  RECENSIONS Book of the Dead, a form adopted at the time, averaged between 15 and 90 feet in length and about 13 inches in width. Some papyri were made to order for special clients, but great stocks of the Book of the Dead were available for those who could afford them, and individual names were put into them when purchased.

The extant papyri of the Book of the Dead were writ- ten in hieroglyphic script, called the hieratic. They con- tained vignettes, protests of innocence, spells, and magic words to provide comfort and security in Tuat. Three of the most famous versions of the Book of the Dead, dis- covered in the tombs of Egyptians, called ANI, ANHAI, and HUNEFER, are now in the British Museum, London. Other religious documents provided for the deceased during various historical periods have also been discovered. The Book of the Gates contains formu- las for making the sun rise and traces the road of the gods and the deceased, showing various openings through which the boat of  RÉ would have to pass in order to be released from perils. The JUDGMENT HALLS OF OSIRIS and the various paradises awaiting the deceased are explained. The text also includes designs for SOLAR BOATS, with arrows and magical disks. Such boats were fashioned by the faithful and then burned in cultic ritu- als to rejuvenate the sun in a mystical fashion each day, as part of overthrowing APOPHIS . The earliest display of the Book of the Gates is on the walls of the tomb of HOREMHAB (1319–1307  B.C.E.) in the  VALLEY OF THE KINGS.

The Book of the Opening of the Mouth, once part of the LIST OF OFFERINGS, a text developed in the Eighteenth Dynasty with new ceremonies attached to the traditional ones, remained popular. Priests used the ur-heka instru- ment according to the rituals of this book and magically opened the mouth of the corpse, while libations were poured out in honor of the gods. The purpose of the book and its rituals was to provide the deceased with a new form in the other world and to make him or her part of the divine cosmos there. The rites were also designed to establish contact between the living and the dead, an important aspect of Egyptian beliefs. In later periods the corpse was no longer used for the rituals. A statue was designed to take the place of the deceased during the cer- emonies.

The Book of the Pylons, called the Shat en Sebau, was another version of the Book of the Dead. This work was written to provide the dead with detailed descriptions of the Underworld. Another funerary text, called alternately the Deliverance of Mankind or the Destruction of Mankind, was discovered in the tomb of  SETI I (r. 1306–1290 B.C.E.) of the Nineteenth Dynasty. The docu- ment concerns a popular myth about the nature of man. Yet other versions included the Book of Breathing, the Book of Traversing in Eternity , and the Book of Being in Tuat. The various religious or funerary texts called the Book of the Dead evolved over the centuries as mortuary rituals became more sophisticated and broad in their appeal. New versions appear in the New Kingdom, and another one after the fall of the pharaonic dynasties. These were recensions, formulated in HELIOPOLIS, THEBES, and SAIS.